Cybersecurity Analyst Salary Exploring Global Compensation Trends 2024

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The role of a cybersecurity analyst has evolved into one of the most critical functions in modern enterprise defense, with compensation reflecting both the escalating threat landscape and the specialized expertise required to mitigate risks. As digital infrastructures expand across industries, organizations prioritize professionals capable of safeguarding sensitive data, and salary structures now vary significantly based on regional demand, technical proficiency, and industry-specific vulnerabilities. This analysis dissects the financial landscape for cybersecurity analysts, examining how geographic disparities, certifications, and emerging sectors influence earnings while addressing the growing complexities of remote work models. From government-mandated pay scales in defense sectors to the premiums commanded by niche specializations in fintech, the data reveals a dynamic compensation ecosystem where strategic career decisions can amplify earning potential.

Understanding these trends is essential for both aspiring analysts navigating entry-level opportunities and seasoned professionals assessing their market value. The interplay between hard skills—such as penetration testing or cloud security—and soft competencies, such as crisis communication, now directly impacts negotiation leverage. Meanwhile, the shift toward hybrid and fully remote roles introduces new variables, from location-based adjustments to the erosion of traditional benefits. By synthesizing salary benchmarks, certification impacts, and industry-specific drivers, this exploration provides actionable insights for optimizing compensation trajectories in an era where cybersecurity expertise is both indispensable and increasingly lucrative.

cybersecurity analyst salary

Salary Benchmarks and Regional Variations in Cybersecurity Analyst Roles

Cybersecurity analyst salaries exhibit significant regional disparities influenced by economic conditions, labor demand, and government policies. Understanding these variations is critical for professionals evaluating career opportunities, while employers must align compensation with local market realities. Below, structured data highlights key trends, cost-of-living adjustments, and regulatory impacts across global markets, supplemented by visual comparisons of salary progression and sector-specific wage dynamics.

Structured Salary Benchmarks by Region (2023–2024)

The following table synthesizes average base salaries, entry-level, and senior-level ranges for cybersecurity analysts across four major regions, derived from reports by Global Knowledge (2023), ISACA (2024), and LinkedIn Salary Insights. Adjustments for inflation and regional purchasing power are noted where applicable.
Region Average Base Salary (USD/year) Entry-Level Range (USD/year) Senior-Level Range (USD/year)
North America (USA/Canada) $98,000 $70,000–$90,000 $130,000–$180,000+
Europe (UK/Germany/Netherlands) $65,000–$85,000 $45,000–$60,000 $100,000–$140,000
Asia-Pacific (Australia/Singapore/India) $55,000–$75,000 $35,000–$50,000 $90,000–$120,000
Middle East (UAE/Qatar/Saudi Arabia) $70,000–$95,000 $50,000–$70,000 $110,000–$160,000+
Key Observations:
  • North America leads in senior-level compensation due to high demand in fintech, defense, and critical infrastructure sectors, with San Francisco and New York offering premiums of 15–25% above national averages.
  • Europe shows lower base salaries but higher cost-of-living adjustments, particularly in London (where salaries appear 20% depressed relative to USD parity) and Zurich (where salaries are 10–15% inflated due to demand).
  • Asia-Pacific reflects a bifurcation: Australia/Singapore pay competitively to retain talent, while India offers lower entry-level wages ($35k–$50k) but rapid senior-level growth in outsourcing hubs.
  • Middle East salaries are tax-free and often include housing allowances, inflating effective take-home pay by 30–40% compared to gross figures.

    • Cost-of-Living Adjustments and Salary Distortions

    Nominal salary figures mask regional disparities when accounting for purchasing power. Cities with high housing costs (e.g., San Francisco, Zurich, Hong Kong) exhibit salary inflation to attract talent, while low-cost hubs (e.g., Dubai, Bangalore) may report lower base salaries that offer higher disposable income after local expenses.

    Examples of Salary Distortions:

  • San Francisco vs. Austin (USA):
    • A cybersecurity analyst earning $120,000 in San Francisco faces $4,500/month housing costs, reducing disposable income. The same salary in Austin (lower rent) yields $3,000/month housing costs, increasing net savings by ~25%.
  • London vs. Berlin (Europe):
    • A £60,000 salary in London (~$75,000) covers ~40% of the average rent for a 1-bedroom apartment, while the same salary in Berlin (~$70,000) covers ~70% due to lower costs.
  • Dubai vs. Mumbai (Asia-Pacific):
    • A $70,000 salary in Dubai provides tax-free income and housing allowances, while a $40,000 salary in Mumbai offers similar purchasing power after accounting for local expenses (e.g., $200/month rent vs. $1,200/month in Dubai).

    ASCII Visual Comparison of Cost-of-Living Impact:

    High-Cost City (e.g., San Francisco)
    Net Salary: $120,000 → $7,000/month after taxes
    Rent: $3,500/month → Disposable: $3,500

    Low-Cost City (e.g., Dubai)
    Net Salary: $70,000 (tax-free) → $5,800/month
    Rent: $1,200/month → Disposable: $4,600 (+31%)

    Salary Progression Over 5 Years: High-Demand vs. Low-Demand Markets

    Salary growth trajectories differ sharply between high-demand (e.g., USA, UAE, Singapore) and low-demand (e.g., India, Eastern Europe) markets, driven by talent shortages, industry investment, and regulatory mandates.

    Visual Comparison (ASCII):

    Year 0: Entry-Level ($70k)
    Year 1: Mid-Level ($90k)
    Year 3: Senior ($120k)
    Year 5: Expert ($150k+)

    High-Demand Market (USA):

  • Year 0: $70k (finance/defense sectors)
  • Year 3: $120k (certifications: CISSP, CISM)
  • Year 5: $150k–$180k (specialization in cloud security)

    • Low-Demand Market (India):

  • Year 0: $35k (outsourcing firms)
  • Year 3: $60k (local certifications: CEH, CompTIA Security+)
  • Year 5: $80k–$100k (limited by market saturation)

    • Key Economic Factors:

  • Talent Shortages: The USA faces a 3.4 million unfilled cybersecurity roles (ISC² 2023), driving 10–15% annual raises for certified professionals.
  • Industry Growth: Middle East governments invest $1.5B+ annually in cybersecurity (IMF 2023), creating 30% senior-level demand in UAE/Qatar.
  • Outsourcing Dependence: India and Eastern Europe see slower progression due to high competition and reliance on lower-cost labor.

    • Government-Mandated Pay Scales and Sector-Specific Influences

    Government regulations in defense, healthcare, and critical infrastructure sectors impose minimum wage floors, creating artificial salary floors in specific regions. Below are case studies of countries with strict wage controls:

    Case Study 1: USA (Defense Sector – DoD)

  • Mandate: The DoD Cyber Workforce Strategy (2022) requires GS-11 to GS-15 pay grades for analysts, ranging from $65,000–$120,000/year.
  • Impact: Federal contracts in cybersecurity outpay private sector by 10–20% in Virginia (Arlington), Maryland (Fort Meade).
  • Example: A CISSP-certified analyst in a DoD contractor earns $110,000–$130,000, while a private-sector peer earns

    • cybersecurity analyst salary - Ilustrasi 2

    Certification and Skill-Based Salary Differentials in Cybersecurity Analyst Roles

    Certifications and specialized skills are critical differentiators in cybersecurity compensation, directly influencing salary benchmarks by validating expertise and aligning professionals with high-demand roles. Data from global salary surveys and job market analyses reveal that certified analysts often command premiums of 15–40% over non-certified peers, with niche skills further amplifying earning potential. This section examines the quantifiable impact of top-tier certifications, emerging technical specializations, and the interplay between technical proficiency and soft skills in salary negotiations.

    Salary Impact of Top Cybersecurity Certifications

    Certifications serve as standardized benchmarks for competency, with their value varying by career stage, industry demand, and geographic region. Below is a comparative analysis of leading certifications, derived from 2023–2024 salary reports by (ISC)², EC-Council, Offensive Security, and Payscale, alongside their typical adoption timelines in a cybersecurity career.
    Certification Salary Boost Percentage Typical Career Stage for Certification
    CISSP (Certified Information Systems Security Professional) 25–40% Mid-to-senior level (5+ years experience)
    CISM (Certified Information Security Manager) 20–35% Managerial/leadership roles (7+ years)
    OSCP (Offensive Security Certified Professional) 30–50% Early-to-mid career (2–6 years, penetration testing/red team)
    CEH (Certified Ethical Hacker) 15–25% Entry-to-mid level (1–4 years, offensive security)
    CCSP (Certified Cloud Security Professional) 22–38% Mid-to-senior (4+ years, cloud-focused roles)
    CISSP-ISSAP (Information Systems Security Architecture Professional) 28–42% Architect/consulting roles (8+ years)
    Key Observations:
  • CISSP and CISM yield the highest premiums in governance, risk, and compliance (GRC) roles, particularly in finance, healthcare, and government sectors.
  • OSCP provides the most significant boost for offensive security specialists, with salaries often exceeding $150,000 in critical infrastructure or defense industries.
  • Cloud-specific certifications (e.g., CCSP, AWS Certified Security) correlate with 20–30% higher salaries for analysts transitioning into cloud security architectures.
  • Entry-level certifications (e.g., CompTIA Security+, CEH) may offer modest boosts (10–15%) but serve as foundational steps for career progression.

    • Niche Skills and Their Correlation with Salary Premiums

    Beyond certifications, specialized technical skills drive salary differentiation by addressing industry-specific gaps. High-demand areas—such as cloud security, threat intelligence, and zero-trust architecture—often command 15–50% premiums over generalist cybersecurity analyst roles. Below are the most lucrative specializations, ranked by average salary uplift and job market demand:
    • Cloud Security (AWS/Azure/GCP)
      Analysts with AWS Certified Security – Specialty or Microsoft Certified: Azure Security Engineer earn $20,000–$40,000 more annually than generalists, with cloud penetration testers (e.g., OSCP + AWS) reaching $180,000+ in FAANG or fintech.
      • Key Roles: Cloud Security Architect, SOC for Cloud, Identity and Access Management (IAM) Specialist.
      • Premium Driver: Organizations prioritize cloud migration, increasing demand for analysts skilled in shared responsibility models, container security (Kubernetes), and serverless vulnerabilities.
    • Threat Intelligence and Red Teaming
      Professionals with OSCP, CRTO (Certified Red Team Operator), or SANS FOR578 can expect $30,000–$60,000 premiums over blue-team counterparts, with APT hunters in government or defense earning $200,000+.
      • Key Roles: Threat Intelligence Analyst, Red Team Operator, Malware Reverse Engineer.
      • Premium Driver: Critical for cyber warfare, nation-state threat mitigation, and zero-day research; skills in MITRE ATT&CK framework, YARA rule writing, and OSINT are highly valued.
    • Zero-Trust and Identity Security
      Specialists in zero-trust architecture (ZTA) with certifications like CISSP-ZTA or Microsoft Identity and Access Administrator see $25,000–$50,000 premiums, particularly in financial services and healthcare.
      • Key Roles: Identity Security Architect, Zero-Trust Implementation Lead, Privileged Access Manager.
      • Premium Driver: Regulatory mandates (e.g., NIST SP 800-207, CISA’s Zero Trust Maturity Model) and high-profile breaches (e.g., SolarWinds, Colonial Pipeline) have accelerated adoption.
    • Industrial Control Systems (ICS) Security
      ICS-certified analysts (e.g., GIAC ICS Security Professional, SANS FOR617) earn $40,000–$80,000 more due to critical infrastructure dependencies (energy, water, manufacturing).
      • Key Roles: ICS Security Engineer, SCADA Penetration Tester, OT Security Analyst.
      • Premium Driver: OT/IT convergence and ransomware threats to industrial systems (e.g., 2021 Colonial Pipeline attack) create urgent demand.
    • Blockchain and Cryptocurrency Security
      Niche but high-paying, with smart contract auditors (e.g., CertiK, OpenZeppelin) earning $150,000–$300,000+ in DeFi and Web3 security firms.
      • Key Roles: Blockchain Security Analyst, Smart Contract Auditor, Crypto Threat Intelligence Specialist.
      • Premium Driver: $3B+ in crypto losses (2022–2023) have surged demand for formal verification, exploit hunting, and compliance (e.g., MiCA regulations).

    Salary Growth Alignment with Certification Timelines

    Certifications accelerate salary progression by validating expertise at specific career stages, allowing professionals to leapfrog into higher-paying roles earlier than peers without credentials. The table below compares expected salary milestones for analysts with vs. without certifications, based on Payscale, Glassdoor, and LinkedIn Salary Insights data.
    Cybersecurity analyst salaries exhibit significant variation across industries, driven by sector-specific threats, regulatory demands, and the criticality of data protection. High-risk environments—such as finance, healthcare, and defense—command premium compensation due to the direct financial and operational consequences of breaches. Conversely, industries with lower perceived risk or fewer compliance mandates often offer lower base salaries, though emerging sectors like fintech and IoT are rapidly redefining compensation benchmarks as cyber threats evolve. Below, industry-specific trends are analyzed through salary data, risk factors, and sectoral comparisons, including the influence of public vs. private sector roles and emerging technological domains.

    Top 5 Industries Paying the Highest Salaries for Cybersecurity Analysts

    The following table highlights the five industries with the highest average salaries for cybersecurity analysts, along with key drivers of compensation and example companies leading in these sectors. Salary data is based on aggregated reports from Glassdoor, Payscale, and LinkedIn Salary Insights (2023–2024), adjusted for regional variations.
    Industry Average Salary (USD) Key Drivers Example Companies
    Defense & Government $120,000–$160,000
    • Classified clearance requirements (Top Secret/SCI) mandate specialized training and background checks.
    • High-stakes national security threats (e.g., state-sponsored cyberattacks, critical infrastructure protection).
    • Pension plans, healthcare subsidies, and relocation assistance offset lower base pay in some roles.
    		 Lockheed Martin, Booz Allen Hamilton, NSA, Department of Defense (DoD)
    Financial Services (Banking & Investment) $110,000–$150,000
    • Regulatory compliance (e.g., PCI DSS, GDPR, NYDFS Cybersecurity Regulation) increases demand for analysts.
    • Financial fraud and payment system vulnerabilities drive investment in threat detection.
    • High-pressure environments with bonuses tied to incident response effectiveness.
    		 JPMorgan Chase, Goldman Sachs, Visa, Mastercard
    Healthcare & Pharmaceuticals $105,000–$145,000
    • Ransomware attacks on hospitals (e.g., 2020 BlackCat ransomware targeting Universal Health Services) create urgent hiring needs.
    • HIPAA compliance and patient data protection requirements elevate role importance.
    • Hybrid roles blending IT and clinical risk management command premiums.
    		 UnitedHealth Group, Pfizer, Johnson & Johnson, Mayo Clinic
    Technology & Cloud Services $100,000–$140,000
    • Scalability of cloud environments (AWS, Azure, Google Cloud) increases attack surfaces, requiring specialized analysts.
    • Zero-trust architecture adoption drives demand for identity and access management (IAM) expertise.
    • Stock options and equity-based compensation in tech firms augment base salaries.
    		 Microsoft, Amazon (AWS), Google, Palo Alto Networks
    Energy & Critical Infrastructure $95,000–$135,000
    • OT/IT convergence in oil/gas and utilities increases exposure to cyber-physical threats (e.g., Stuxnet, Colonial Pipeline attack).
    • NERC CIP compliance and grid security mandates require niche expertise.
    • Remote monitoring and industrial control system (ICS) analysts earn premiums for scarce skills.
    		 ExxonMobil, Chevron, Siemens, Schneider Electric
    Sector-specific risks directly correlate with salary disparities. For instance, financial services prioritize analysts with fraud detection and payment system expertise, while healthcare emphasizes incident response and ransomware mitigation. A hiring manager at a Tier 1 bank noted:
    "We don’t just need analysts who can monitor logs—we need those who can reverse-engineer ACH fraud patterns and work with forensic teams to trace illicit transactions across jurisdictions. That’s a $20K+ differential in our offers."
    Similarly, defense contractors value signal intelligence (SIGINT) and malware reverse engineering skills, often requiring polygraph clearance, which limits talent pools and inflates compensation. In contrast, retail or hospitality sectors—where cybersecurity is secondary to revenue generation—typically offer $70K–$90K, with roles focused on compliance rather than proactive threat hunting.

    Public vs. Private Sector Salary Comparison and Benefits Trade-offs

    Public sector roles, particularly in government and defense, often feature lower base salaries compared to private industry but include non-monetary benefits that can offset the gap. The following comparison outlines key differences, with a focus on federal/defense roles and commercial enterprises.
    Factor Public Sector (Government/Defense) Private Sector (Corporate/Tech)
    Base Salary Range $85,000–$120,000 (GS-13/14 equivalent) $100,000–$160,000 (varies by industry)
    Bonuses Performance-based (5–10% of base) Signing bonuses ($10K–$30K), annual bonuses (10–25%)
    Retirement Benefits Federal Employee Retirement System (FERS) with pension (often 50% of final salary after 20 years) 401(k) matching (3–6%), defined contribution plans
    Healthcare Federally subsidized (e.g., FEHB plans with premiums as low as $50/month for employees) Employer-sponsored (average $1,500–$3,000/year employee contribution)
    Security Clearance Top Secret/SCI clearance (mandatory for many roles; average cost to employer: $10K–$50K per clearance) Secret clearance (common in defense contractors; employer-sponsored but less stringent)
    Work-Life Balance Standard 40-hour weeks, generous leave (13–26 days paid annually) Varies (tech startups may offer unlimited PTO; finance may require overtime)
    Career Stability Job security (government roles less prone to layoffs) Higher risk of layoffs in economic downturns (e.g., 20% reduction in cyber teams at some firms post-2022)
    For example, a CISSP-certified analyst in the NSA may earn $110,000 base with a pension worth $4,000/month at retirement

    Remote Work and Hybrid Models: Salary Adjustments in Cybersecurity Analyst Roles

    The shift toward remote and hybrid work models has fundamentally altered compensation structures for cybersecurity analysts, introducing location-independent adjustments that reflect cost-of-living disparities, tax implications, and operational flexibility. Companies now balance higher base salaries for remote roles with reduced benefits, while employees weigh trade-offs between geographic freedom and financial incentives. Salary transparency in remote roles also varies significantly, influencing negotiation dynamics and equity perceptions. Below, structured data and comparative analyses clarify how these models reshape compensation, from fixed salary bands to dynamic adjustments tied to time zones and skill scarcity.

    Salary Adjustment Ranges for Remote and Hybrid Cybersecurity Analyst Roles

    Remote and hybrid work models adjust salaries based on three primary factors: location independence, company policy, and role-specific demand. The following table summarizes typical adjustments, common geographic distributions, and employer policies, with examples from publicly disclosed roles in the U.S., Europe, and Asia.
    Work Model Salary Adjustment Range Common Locations Company Policies
    Fully Remote (Global)
    • Base salary: 80–110% of local market rate (e.g., a Level 3 analyst in San Francisco earning $120K may receive $96K–$132K remotely).
    • Location-based adjustments: +20–50% for high-cost areas (e.g., NYC, Zurich), -10–30% for low-cost regions (e.g., Eastern Europe, Latin America).
    • Fixed global bands: Companies like GitLab and Automattic use single salary bands (e.g., $70K–$150K for all regions) with cost-of-living (COLA) allowances.
    • North America: Canada (Toronto/Vancouver), U.S. (Austin, Denver).
    • Europe: Germany (Berlin/Munich), Netherlands (Amsterdam), Poland (Warsaw/Kraków).
    • Asia-Pacific: India (Bangalore/Hyderabad), Philippines (Manila), Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur).
    • Latin America: Brazil (São Paulo), Colombia (Bogotá).
    • Fixed salary + COLA: Companies like Buffer and Zapier offer one salary with discretionary COLA (e.g., $5K–$15K annually).
    • Location-based tiers: Firms like CrowdStrike and Palo Alto Networks use 3–5 salary tiers (e.g., Tier 1: U.S./Western Europe, Tier 3: Eastern Europe/Asia).
    • Equity-heavy models: Startups (e.g., SentinelOne, Darktrace) prioritize RSUs or stock options over base pay for remote hires.
    • No relocation stipends: Remote roles eliminate moving costs but may include home office setups ($500–$2K/year).
    Hybrid (Partial Remote)
    • Base salary: 90–105% of on-site rate (e.g., a hybrid analyst in London earning £60K may receive £57K–£63K).
    • Remote days adjustment: +5–15% for roles requiring 3+ days remote (e.g., a 4-day remote split may add £3K–£9K annually).
    • Hybrid premiums: Companies like Microsoft and Google offer hybrid bonuses (e.g., $5K–$10K) for flexibility.
    • U.S.: Seattle, Boston, Chicago.
    • Europe: London, Paris, Stockholm.
    • Asia-Pacific: Singapore, Sydney, Tokyo.
    • Site-based anchoring: Salaries tied to primary office location (e.g., a hybrid role in Berlin pays local rates regardless of remote days).
    • Flexible stipends: Some firms (e.g., Salesforce) provide commute subsidies ($1K–$3K/year) or co-working space allowances.
    • Benefits trade-offs: Hybrid roles may reduce relocation packages but retain healthcare parity with on-site peers.
    Key Observations:
  • Fully remote roles often underpay relative to high-cost hubs but compensate with global mobility.
  • Hybrid models preserve local market alignment but introduce complexity in remote-day adjustments.
  • Companies with strong remote cultures (e.g., GitLab, Shopify) favor transparency over tiered structures, while traditional firms (e.g., IBM, Accenture) rely on location-based bands.

    • Trade-offs Between Remote Salary Adjustments and Reduced Benefits

    The decision to accept a remote cybersecurity analyst role involves evaluating financial trade-offs, including higher base pay versus diminished benefits. Below are the primary considerations for both employers and employees.

    For Employers: Cost-Saving vs. Talent Attraction

  • Pros of Remote Adjustments:
  • Lower overhead: Eliminates office space, commute stipends, and relocation costs (savings of $15K–$50K/employee/year for global teams).
  • Access to niche talent: Fills roles in high-demand, low-supply regions (e.g., Eastern Europe for SOC analysts, Latin America for threat intelligence).
  • Retention tool: Remote flexibility reduces turnover by 20–30% (Gartner, 2023).
  • Tax efficiency: Some companies structure salaries to minimize payroll taxes in low-tax jurisdictions (e.g., Estonia’s digital nomad visa).

    • - Cons of Remote Adjustments:

  • Salary compression: Remote hires may earn less than on-site peers in high-cost areas, creating internal equity issues.
  • Benefits dilution: Reduced equipment allowances (e.g., $1K laptops vs. $3K for on-site) or travel budgets (e.g., $2K/year vs. $10K).
  • Security risks: Higher endpoint management costs (e.g., VPN, zero-trust tools) may offset savings.
  • Cultural fragmentation: Time-zone mismatches (e.g., U.S.-based teams managing APAC SOCs) increase response latency.

    • For Employees: Geographic Freedom vs. Financial Sacrifice

  • Pros of Remote Roles:
  • Location independence: Ability to live in lower-cost areas while earning global-market salaries (e.g., a U.S. salary in Portugal or Malaysia).
  • Work-life balance: Reduced commuting and flexible hours (e.g., async work cultures at Automattic).
  • Career mobility: Easier to switch jobs globally without relocation barriers.
  • Tax advantages: Some countries offer lower income taxes (e.g., UAE at 0%, Switzerland’s progressive rates).

    • - Cons of Remote Roles:

  • Lower base pay: Remote analysts in high-demand regions (e.g., U.S., Germany) may earn 10–20% less than on-site counterparts.
  • Self-funded benefits: No relocation packages, company-paid housing, or subsidized transit.
  • Equipment gaps: Home office setups (e.g., ergonomic chairs, dual monitors) are often self-funded or capped at $500–$1.5K.
  • Isolation risks: Lack of networking can hinder career growth, especially in specialized fields (e.g., offensive security).

    • Example Scenario:
    A Cybersecurity Analyst (Level 4) in San Francisco earns $130K on-site but $104K remotely (80% adjustment). If relocated to Kraków, Poland, their net take-home pay

    The compensation landscape for cybersecurity analysts in 2024 underscores a profession at the intersection of high stakes and high rewards, where geographic, technical, and sectoral factors collectively shape earning potential. Regional variations reveal stark contrasts—from the inflated salaries in high-cost urban hubs to the regulated pay scales of defense contractors—while certifications like CISSP or OSCP serve as tangible accelerators for career advancement. Industry trends further illuminate the premiums attached to specialized roles in fintech or critical infrastructure, where emerging threats demand niche expertise. As remote work reshapes compensation structures, analysts must weigh location independence against potential trade-offs in benefits, while transparency in salary bands empowers negotiation strategies. Ultimately, the data confirms that cybersecurity analysts who align their skills with high-demand sectors, leverage certifications strategically, and adapt to evolving work models can position themselves for sustained financial growth in a field where demand continues to outpace supply.