Complete Guide Public Sector Pay Structures Explained

Published

complete guide public sector pay
Table of Contents

Public sector compensation represents a cornerstone of economic stability and workforce motivation across nations, yet its complexities often remain underappreciated. Unlike private sector models, public sector pay structures are designed to balance fiscal responsibility with societal priorities, from teacher salaries in urban schools to civil service advancements in government agencies. This guide dissects the systematic framework governing public sector remuneration, revealing how legislative mandates, economic fluctuations, and regional disparities shape salaries, benefits, and career progression.

The interplay between base pay, allowances, and non-monetary perks—such as defined-benefit pensions and healthcare subsidies—creates a unique compensation ecosystem. Comparative analyses across countries highlight how cultural values, labor laws, and economic policies redefine equity in public employment. From the UK’s Pay Review Bodies to US federal pay scales, each system reflects broader societal goals, whether addressing inequality or attracting critical talent like healthcare professionals. This exploration also examines external pressures, including inflation adjustments and union negotiations, which frequently reshape public sector wages amid economic volatility.

complete guide public sector pay

Understanding Public Sector Pay Structures

Public sector compensation systems are designed to balance fiscal responsibility with workforce sustainability, often differing significantly from private sector models in structure, governance, and equity mechanisms. Unlike private-sector pay—which frequently ties remuneration to market demand, profitability, or individual performance—public sector salaries are typically standardized through job classification systems, legislative pay scales, and collective bargaining agreements. These systems prioritize transparency, fairness, and public accountability, ensuring consistency across roles while accounting for regional cost-of-living adjustments and specialized skill requirements. Key components include base salaries, allowances (e.g., housing, remote work, or hazardous duty), and non-monetary benefits (e.g., pensions, healthcare, or professional development), which collectively shape total compensation packages.

Public sector pay structures are underpinned by government-mandated frameworks that distinguish them from private-sector flexibility. For example, the UK’s Pay Review Bodies (e.g., for teachers, nurses, and civil servants) assess pay recommendations annually based on inflation, productivity, and workforce retention challenges. Similarly, the U.S. Federal Pay System (under the General Schedule) classifies roles by grade levels (GS-1 to GS-15) and pay bands, while Canada’s Public Service Compensation Act aligns salaries with national occupational standards. These systems mitigate disparities by standardizing progression paths, ensuring that similar roles across departments or regions receive comparable pay. Below, a comparative analysis highlights how base salary ranges vary by career stage and country, alongside an exploration of profession-specific structures and the legislative mechanisms governing pay determination.

Core Components of Public Sector Compensation

Public sector compensation comprises three primary elements: base salary, allowances, and benefits, each serving distinct purposes in attracting, retaining, and motivating employees. Base salaries are determined by job evaluation systems that assess duties, responsibilities, and qualifications, often aligned with national pay scales (e.g., the Australian Public Service (APS) Classification System or the UK’s Job Evaluation Panel). Allowances address cost-of-living differences, hardship conditions, or specialized roles (e.g., remote area allowances in Canada or London Weighting in the UK). Benefits, such as defined-benefit pensions (e.g., UK’s Civil Service Pension Scheme) or subsidized healthcare (e.g., VA benefits for U.S. federal employees), supplement cash compensation to enhance long-term security.

Key distinctions from private-sector models:

  • Standardization vs. Market Flexibility: Public sector pay is less responsive to individual negotiation or company profitability, relying instead on predefined scales and collective agreements.
  • Equity Over Performance Incentives: While private-sector roles often include bonuses or stock options, public sector increments are typically tied to seniority, merit-based progression, or cost-of-living adjustments (COLAs).
  • Legislative Oversight: Pay decisions in the public sector are subject to audits, parliamentary scrutiny, or independent review bodies, ensuring alignment with public sector values (e.g., transparency, accountability).

    • Below, a table compares base salary ranges for entry-level, mid-career, and senior roles in the UK, Australia, and Canada, focusing on generalist civil service positions (e.g., administrative officers, policy analysts). Data is sourced from 2023–2024 government pay scales and adjusted for annual inflation where applicable.

    Country Role Level Annual Base Salary (Local Currency) USD Equivalent (Approx.)
    United Kingdom Entry-Level (e.g., Band 3) £24,907 – £30,765 $31,500 – $39,000
    Mid-Career (e.g., Band 6) £35,120 – £43,633 $44,500 – $55,500
    Senior (e.g., Band 8) £52,124 – £65,898 $66,000 – $83,500
    Australia Entry-Level (e.g., APS Level 3) AUD 58,000 – 68,000 $39,000 – $46,000
    Mid-Career (e.g., APS Level 5) AUD 80,000 – 95,000 $54,000 – $64,000
    Senior (e.g., APS Level 6) AUD 105,000 – 130,000 $71,000 – $88,000
    Canada Entry-Level (e.g., CS-01) CAD 45,000 – 55,000 $33,000 – $40,000
    Mid-Career (e.g., CS-04) CAD 65,000 – 80,000 $48,000 – $59,000
    Senior (e.g., CS-06) CAD 90,000 – 115,000 $66,000 – $84,000
    Note: Exchange rates are based on 2024 averages (1 GBP ≈ 1.28 USD, 1 AUD ≈ 0.65 USD, 1 CAD ≈ 0.73 USD). Public sector salaries in each country are subject to regional adjustments (e.g., higher pay in urban areas) and profession-specific scales (e.g., healthcare or teaching roles may exceed these ranges).

    Government Pay Scales and Equity Mechanisms

    Public sector pay scales serve as tools for equity, ensuring that roles of comparable responsibility and skill are remunerated consistently across departments and geographic locations. These scales are developed through job evaluation methodologies, such as point-factor systems (e.g., Hay Group’s model, used in the UK’s NHS) or national occupational standards (e.g., Australia’s APS Classification). Legislative frameworks enforce transparency and fairness:
  • United Kingdom: The Public Sector Pay Policy Framework mandates that pay reviews for teachers, nurses, and civil servants are conducted by independent review bodies (e.g., School Teachers’ Review Body). Decisions are based on workforce surveys, inflation rates, and recruitment challenges.
  • United States: The Federal Employees Pay System (under the Office of Personnel Management) uses the General Schedule (GS) to classify roles by grade levels (GS-1 to GS-15) and pay bands, with within-grade increases

    • Key Factors Influencing Public Sector Salaries

    Public sector compensation is not determined in isolation but is shaped by a complex interplay of economic, political, and social forces. Unlike private sector wages, which are primarily driven by market demand and company profitability, public sector salaries reflect broader policy objectives, labor market conditions, and fiscal constraints. Understanding these factors is essential for grasping why adjustments occur, how they differ across regions, and their implications for workforce stability, public service delivery, and economic equity.

    The determination of public sector pay involves a balance between maintaining competitive remuneration to attract and retain skilled employees and ensuring fiscal sustainability for governments. External pressures—such as inflation, labor shortages, and political mandates—frequently clash with budgetary limitations, leading to negotiated compromises or prolonged disputes. Below, the primary influences are categorized into economic, political, and labor-driven factors, alongside comparative analyses of public and private sector responses to economic volatility.

    Economic Determinants of Public Sector Pay Adjustments

    Economic conditions serve as the foundational framework for public sector salary structures, directly impacting cost-of-living adjustments (COLAs), inflation indexing, and real wage growth. Governments typically align pay scales with national economic performance to prevent erosion of purchasing power while avoiding unsustainable fiscal burdens.

    Key economic indicators influencing public sector pay include:

  • Inflation rates: Public sector wages are often indexed to inflation to preserve real income levels. For example, the United States federal government’s General Schedule (GS) pay system includes automatic adjustments tied to the Employment Cost Index (ECI) to reflect inflationary pressures.
  • Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth: Strong economic performance may enable governments to allocate higher budgets for salary increments, as seen in post-recession recovery phases where public sector wages were increased to stimulate consumer spending.
  • Unemployment rates: High unemployment can reduce labor market competition, potentially weakening public sector bargaining power, whereas low unemployment strengthens demands for higher wages to compete with private sector offers.
  • Wage growth in the private sector: Public sector pay scales are periodically benchmarked against private sector equivalents to prevent brain drain. For instance, in Canada, provincial governments adjust healthcare worker salaries in response to private hospital wage trends.

    • Economic downturns introduce unique challenges, as governments face pressure to cut costs while maintaining essential services. The response mechanisms differ significantly between public and private sectors:

    • Public Sector Responses to Economic Downturns
      Governments prioritize fiscal austerity, often implementing measures such as pay freezes, hiring freezes, or delayed COLAs. For example, during the 2008 financial crisis, the UK government introduced a two-year pay freeze for most public sector employees, while local authorities faced budget cuts leading to reduced pensions and benefits.
      Public sector pay policies during recessions are designed to protect core services but frequently result in deferred wage growth, delayed promotions, or reduced hiring—strategies that contrast sharply with private sector layoffs or wage reductions.
    • Private Sector Responses to Economic Downturns
      Private employers typically respond to downturns through cost-cutting measures such as layoffs, furloughs, or across-the-board wage reductions. Unlike public sector roles, which are often protected by collective bargaining agreements, private sector wages are directly tied to company performance, leading to more immediate and variable adjustments.
    • Comparative Impact on Workforce Stability
      Public sector employees benefit from greater job security but may experience prolonged stagnation in earnings. In contrast, private sector workers face higher volatility in employment and compensation but may see faster recovery in wages during economic upturns. For instance, during the COVID-19 pandemic, public sector workers in the UK saw limited pay increases despite inflation rising to 3.2% in 2021, while private sector wages grew by an average of 4.5% in the same period.

    Political and Legislative Influences on Public Sector Compensation

    Public sector pay is inherently political, as governments must balance electoral promises with fiscal responsibility. Legislative decisions, party mandates, and international comparisons frequently override purely economic considerations. For example, a government may introduce pay rises to fulfill a campaign pledge, even if budget constraints suggest otherwise, or align salaries with those of neighboring countries to attract cross-border talent.

    Key political and legislative factors include:

  • Government priorities: Administrations may prioritize pay increases for critical roles (e.g., teachers, healthcare workers) during crises, as seen in Germany’s 2022 agreement to raise public sector wages by up to 10% to address labor shortages.
  • International benchmarks: Countries often compare their public sector pay scales to those of economic peers. For instance, Nordic nations adjust salaries to remain competitive with other high-income European states, while developing economies may link pay to global minimum wage standards.
  • Austerity measures: Post-financial crisis, many European governments imposed pay caps or reduced pension benefits, as observed in Greece and Spain, where public sector wages were cut by up to 20% between 2010 and 2015.
  • Legislative mandates: Some jurisdictions mandate specific pay adjustments, such as Australia’s 2020 Fair Work Commission decision to increase minimum wages by 1.75% to offset COVID-19 economic strain.

    • External political pressures also shape negotiations, including:

    • Labor strikes and protests, such as the 2023 UK NHS strikes by junior doctors over pay disputes, which led to a 6.3% increase for junior doctors and a 3.5% rise for consultants.
    • International agreements, like the OECD’s recommendations on public sector wage transparency, which influence how governments disclose and justify pay structures.
    • Media and public opinion campaigns, such as the "Teachers’ Pay Protests" in the UK, which successfully lobbied for a 12% pay rise in 2023 after years of stagnation.
    • Electoral cycles, where incoming governments may reverse pay policies of predecessors, as seen in Brazil’s 2016 reversal of a 2015 public sector wage freeze.

    Role of Unions and Professional Bodies in Salary Negotiations

    Unions and professional associations play a pivotal role in shaping public sector pay through collective bargaining, legal advocacy, and public campaigns. Their influence is most pronounced in sectors with high unionization rates, such as education, healthcare, and transportation, where strikes or work-to-rule actions can disrupt essential services.

    Key mechanisms through which unions impact public sector pay include:

  • Collective bargaining agreements: Unions negotiate multi-year contracts that lock in pay scales, benefits, and working conditions. For example, the American Federation of Teachers (AFT) secured a 20% wage increase for Chicago public school teachers in 2021 after a 13-day strike.
  • Legal challenges: Unions may sue governments for unfair pay practices, as demonstrated by the 2018 case in which the American Federation of Government Employees (AFGE) successfully argued that federal pay freezes violated equal pay laws.
  • Strike actions: High-profile strikes, such as the 2022 UK postal workers’ walkout over a 5% pay offer (later increased to 10%), demonstrate unions’ ability to leverage public pressure for better compensation.
  • Professional body lobbying: Organizations like the Royal College of Nursing (RCN) in the UK advocate for pay parity with private sector equivalents, citing recruitment crises in nursing roles.

    • Case studies highlight the effectiveness of union-led negotiations:

    • UK NHS Pay Disputes (2022–2023)
      Junior doctors in the UK staged repeated strikes over a proposed 3% pay rise, arguing it failed to keep pace with inflation (then at 10.1%). After months of negotiations, the government agreed to a 6.3% increase for junior doctors and a 3.5% rise for consultants, alongside backdated payments.
    • US Federal Employee Strikes (2022)
      The American Federation of Government Employees (AFGE) organized protests and strikes at the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) over wage stagnation. The government responded with a 4.6% pay raise for federal employees in 2023, the largest increase in a decade.
    • Australian Public Service (APS) Negotiations (2020)
      The Australian Services Union (ASU) successfully campaigned for a 3% wage increase for APS employees during the COVID-19 pandemic, citing essential service roles and inflationary pressures.
    The success of these negotiations often hinges on:
  • Public sympathy: Strikes in essential services (e.g., healthcare, education) garner greater media and political support.
  • Government leverage: Administrations may offer concessions to avoid reputational damage or electoral backlash.
  • Economic conditions: Stronger economies provide more room for pay increases, as seen in post-pandemic recovery phases where unions secured higher settlements.
    • Public sector pay policies

    complete guide public sector pay - Ilustrasi 2

    Regional and International Variations in Public Sector Pay

    Public sector compensation structures vary significantly across regions due to differences in economic development, labor policies, and societal priorities. While some nations prioritize high wages to attract skilled workers, others emphasize equity, job security, or alignment with private-sector benchmarks. These disparities reflect broader cultural values—such as the role of the state in welfare provision—or economic constraints, including inflation, fiscal capacity, and currency stability. Understanding these variations is critical for policymakers, international organizations, and public sector employees assessing career opportunities or negotiating compensation frameworks.

    Regional differences in public sector pay are not merely numerical but also symptomatic of deeper institutional and economic philosophies. For instance, Nordic countries often emphasize egalitarianism and high social spending, while emerging economies may balance limited budgets with labor market demands. Additionally, federal systems introduce further complexity, as pay scales can diverge between national and subnational governments even within the same country. Below, a comparative analysis highlights key trends, followed by sector-specific variations and the impact of economic factors like purchasing power parity (PPP).

    Comparative Analysis of Public Sector Pay Across Regions

    The following table compares average annual gross salaries (2023 estimates, adjusted for PPP where applicable) for mid-career public sector professionals across five regions, focusing on roles such as civil servants, teachers, and healthcare workers. Data sources include OECD, World Bank, national statistical agencies, and salary surveys (e.g., Mercer, Glassdoor). Variations are influenced by cost of living, union bargaining power, and government fiscal policies.
    Region Average Annual Salary (USD, PPP-adjusted) Key Influencing Factors Notable Examples
    Europe (Western) $55,000–$85,000
    • Strong labor protections and collective bargaining (e.g., Germany’s Tarifvertrag system).
    • High taxes fund extensive welfare states, reducing reliance on high salaries for social benefits.
    • Centralized pay scales with regional adjustments (e.g., Sweden’s LO agreement for public sector wages).
    • Sweden: Teachers earn ~$60,000–$75,000; civil servants in Stockholm ~$70,000–$90,000 (higher than rural areas).
    • France: Public hospital doctors average ~$90,000; local government workers ~$40,000–$55,000.
    • UK: NHS consultants ~$120,000; local council employees ~$35,000–$50,000.
    Asia-Pacific $15,000–$60,000
    • Divergence between high-income cities (e.g., Singapore) and lower-income regions (e.g., Indonesia).
    • Government pay often tied to private-sector competitiveness (e.g., Singapore’s Meritocracy Fund for top talent).
    • Weaker welfare states shift compensation toward benefits (e.g., housing, healthcare subsidies).
    • Singapore: Civil servants ~$50,000–$120,000 (top roles in Ministry of Finance exceed $200,000).
    • Japan: Teachers ~$40,000–$55,000; national police ~$35,000–$45,000.
    • India: Central government clerks ~$3,000–$6,000; state-level roles vary widely (e.g., Maharashtra vs. Bihar).
    North America $50,000–$110,000
    • Federal systems create pay disparities (e.g., U.S. federal employees vs. state/local workers).
    • Unionization strength (e.g., Canada’s Public Service Alliance of Canada) influences wage growth.
    • Private-sector benchmarking in high-skilled roles (e.g., U.S. federal IT specialists).
    • United States: Federal GS-12 employees ~$75,000–$90,000; California state workers ~$60,000–$85,000.
    • Canada: Federal civil servants ~$65,000–$100,000; provincial healthcare workers ~$50,000–$75,000.
    Africa $5,000–$25,000
    • Limited fiscal capacity leads to lower base salaries, supplemented by allowances (e.g., housing, transport).
    • Brain drain exacerbates pay gaps; skilled workers often emigrate for higher wages.
    • Corruption and inefficiency in payroll systems distort perceived disparities.
    • South Africa: National government clerks ~$10,000–$20,000; provincial healthcare workers ~$8,000–$15,000.
    • Nigeria: Federal civil servants ~$3,000–$7,000; oil sector employees (state-owned) ~$15,000–$30,000.
    • Rwanda: Public sector salaries ~$5,000–$12,000, with performance-based bonuses.
    Oceania $55,000–$90,000
    • High cost of living (e.g., Australia’s Sydney/Melbourne) drives higher base salaries.
    • Strong public sector unions negotiate above-inflation raises (e.g., Australia’s Enterprise Bargaining Agreements).
    • Remote indigenous communities receive additional allowances.
    • Australia: Federal public servants ~$70,000–$100,000; Victorian teachers ~$60,000–$85,000.
    • New Zealand: Healthcare professionals ~$65,000–$95,000; local government workers ~$50,000–$70,000.
    Public sector pay in high-income regions often reflects a trade-off between salary levels and non-monetary benefits (e.g., job security, pensions, work-life balance). In low-income regions, compensation structures prioritize survival wages with supplementary allowances to offset inflation and geographic disparities.

    Cultural and Economic Priorities Shaping Public Sector Compensation

    Public sector pay structures are not neutral; they embed societal values and economic trade-offs. Three case studies illustrate how cultural and policy priorities diverge:

    1. Sweden: Egalitarianism and Collective Bargaining
    Sweden’s public sector pay system is governed by the LO agreement,

    Benefits and Perks Beyond Base Salary in Public Sector Employment

    Public sector compensation extends far beyond base salaries, incorporating a structured suite of non-monetary benefits designed to enhance job satisfaction, work-life balance, and long-term financial security. These perks often reflect the unique demands of public service, including high-stress environments, career longevity, and societal contributions. Unlike private sector benefits, which may prioritize performance-based incentives, public sector advantages typically emphasize stability, comprehensive coverage, and tailored support for roles requiring public trust. Understanding these benefits is critical for employees evaluating career trajectories, as they significantly influence overall compensation packages and quality of life.

    The following sections outline the breadth of non-monetary benefits, their comparative advantages over private sector alternatives, and specialized perks tied to specific public sector roles. A structured comparison highlights the trade-offs inherent in public service employment, particularly in sectors such as emergency services, education, and diplomacy, where unique challenges necessitate targeted support.

    Comprehensive List of Non-Monetary Benefits in Public Sector Roles

    Public sector employees receive a standardized yet role-specific array of benefits that address health, retirement, career development, and personal well-being. Below is a categorized table summarizing the most common non-monetary advantages, with variations noted by jurisdiction and occupation.
    Benefit Category Common Public Sector Offerings Variations by Role/Jurisdiction Private Sector Equivalent (for Comparison)
    Retirement Security Defined Benefit Pension Plans Final salary schemes (e.g., UK Civil Service, U.S. federal employees); career-average plans (e.g., Canada) Defined Contribution Plans (e.g., 401(k), pensions tied to employer contributions)
    Early Retirement Incentives Reduced vesting periods for hazardous roles (e.g., firefighters, police); buyout programs for long-serving employees Severance packages or early retirement windows in private sector (less standardized)
    Lump-Sum Pension Payments One-time payouts for career milestones (e.g., 25+ years of service in some European systems) Rare; typically tied to executive roles or golden handshakes
    Survivor Benefits Guaranteed annuities for spouses/dependents (e.g., U.S. Federal Employees Retirement System) Life insurance policies or limited survivor payouts (varies by employer)
    Health and Wellness Fully Subsidized Healthcare Premium-free or low-cost plans (e.g., U.S. FEHB, UK NHS contributions for civil servants); mental health coverage Employer-sponsored health plans with deductibles/co-pays (e.g., 75% employer contribution in private sector)
    Dental and Vision Insurance Often included at no additional cost; orthodontic coverage for dependents (e.g., U.S. military) Separate plans with employee cost-sharing (common in private sector)
    Wellness Programs Subsidized gym memberships, stress management workshops, and critical incident debriefing (e.g., for emergency responders) Voluntary programs with limited employer support (e.g., wellness stipends in tech firms)
    Work-Life Balance Paid Leave Policies 20–30 days annual leave (e.g., UK civil servants), sick leave without proof (e.g., Sweden), parental leave (e.g., 12+ months in Nordic countries) 10–15 days paid leave (U.S.), unpaid leave under FMLA, parental leave varies by employer
    Flexible Work Arrangements Hybrid schedules, compressed workweeks (e.g., 4-day weeks in New Zealand public sector), telework for administrative roles Flexible hours or remote work (often performance-dependent in private sector)
    Childcare Support Subsidized daycare (e.g., U.S. federal employees), on-site facilities (e.g., UK early years programs), tuition reimbursement for dependent education Dependent care FSAs (limited tax benefits) or employer-sponsored daycare (rare)
    Elder Care Assistance Respite care subsidies, eldercare referral services (e.g., U.S. VA benefits for veterans) Limited support; often self-funded or informal arrangements
    Career Development Tuition Reimbursement Full or partial coverage for degrees/certifications (e.g., U.S. Peace Corps, UK civil service training budget) Tuition assistance programs (often capped at $5,250/year in U.S. private sector)
    Professional Licensing Support Reimbursement for exam fees, continuing education credits (e.g., healthcare professionals in public hospitals) Occasional stipends or one-time reimbursements (varies by industry)
    Internal Mobility Programs Lateral transfers, job rotations (e.g., diplomatic corps), succession planning for leadership roles Internal job postings (competitive; often requires external hiring for senior roles)
    Housing and Relocation Housing Allowances Subsidized housing for remote postings (e.g., U.S. Foreign Service, Canadian North), rent assistance for high-cost areas Relocation packages (one-time moving bonuses, temporary housing)
    Commuter Benefits Subsidized public transit passes, parking stipends, bike-sharing programs (e.g., EU public sector incentives) Pre-tax transit benefits (limited to $280/month in U.S.)
    Unique Role-Specific Perks Hazard Pay Overtime premiums, danger pay (e.g., U.S. federal law enforcement), critical incident pay (e.g., firefighters) Overtime wages (regulated by labor laws); no standardized hazard pay
    Diplomatic Immunities Tax exemptions, duty-free allowances, security details (e.g., U.S. State Department, UN staff) None; private sector employees subject to full taxation and local laws
    Note: Benefit eligibility and generosity vary by country, state, or local government policies. For example, the U.S. Federal Employees Health Benefits (FEHB) program offers plans starting at $0 premium for employees, while UK civil servants receive NHS healthcare contributions subsidized by the government. Some jurisdictions, such as Australia’s Public Service, provide additional "flexible working hours" for employees with caring responsibilities.

    Public Sector Pensions: Defined Benefit Plans vs. Private Sector Retirement Options

    Public sector pensions, particularly defined benefit (DB) plans, are among the most secure retirement systems globally, offering predictable payouts based on salary and tenure. These plans contrast sharply with the defined contribution (DC) models dominant in the private sector, where retirement income depends on investment performance and employer contributions. Below are the structural differences, advantages, and risks associated with each system

    Understanding public sector pay is not merely an exercise in financial analysis but a study of governance, equity, and workforce sustainability. The structures in place—whether in Sweden’s welfare-driven models or Singapore’s merit-based systems—demonstrate how compensation policies mirror national priorities. For policymakers, employees, and employers alike, grasping these dynamics is essential to fostering transparency, fairness, and long-term stability. As economic conditions evolve and labor demands shift, the principles outlined here provide a foundation for informed decision-making, ensuring public sector roles remain competitive while upholding the values of service and societal benefit.

    Leave a Comment

    Comments are moderated before appearing. The data you submit is processed according to the Privacy Policy of ir.msu.ac.zw.