alexander gerst mond exploring space leadership science outreach

Alexander Gerst’s Missions to the International Space Station: Chronological Overview and Scientific Contributions

Chronological Timeline of Alexander Gerst’s ISS Missions

1. Expedition 40/41 – Blue Dot (May 28, 2014 – November 10, 2014)
   • Launch: May 28, 2014, aboard Soyuz TMA-13M from the Baikonur Cosmodrome (Kazakhstan).
   • Duration: 165 days (16 hours, 42 minutes) in space, including 16 hours of extravehicular activity (EVA).
   • Primary Objectives:
     • Conduct over 100 experiments in biology, physics, and human health, with a focus on Earth observation and climate research.
     • Support the arrival of the first commercial cargo spacecraft, SpaceX’s Dragon (CRS-4), and the first U.S. commercial resupply mission.
     • Participate in two spacewalks (EVAs) to install and maintain equipment, including the replacement of a failed backup computer.
     • Serve as a flight engineer, supporting robotic operations and station maintenance.
   • Notable Achievements:
     • First German commander of the ISS (handed over command to Maxim Suraev on October 14, 2014).
     • Conducted the first spacewalk by a German astronaut since Thomas Reiter in 2006.
     • Engaged in extensive public outreach, including live broadcasts from space and educational initiatives.
2. Expedition 56/57 – Horizons (June 6, 2018 – December 20, 2018)
   • Launch: June 6, 2018, aboard Soyuz MS-09 from Baikonur Cosmodrome.
   • Duration: 196 days (23 hours, 16 minutes), the longest continuous spaceflight by a German astronaut.
   • Primary Objectives:
     • Lead over 60 European experiments, including studies on protein crystal growth, fluid dynamics, and radiation exposure.
     • Command the ISS during Expedition 57 (October 3, 2018 – December 20, 2018), becoming the second German and first ESA astronaut to hold the role.
     • Monitor Earth’s climate through the ISS’s Cupola module, contributing data to projects like GEDI (Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation).
     • Test new technologies for future lunar missions, including robotic arm operations and 3D printing in microgravity.
   • Notable Achievements:
     • First European astronaut to command the ISS, symbolizing ESA’s increased autonomy in station operations.
     • Participated in critical maintenance tasks, including repairs to the station’s cooling system.
     • Conducted educational demonstrations, such as growing crystals and plants in space, to inspire STEM engagement.
     • Assisted in the capture of SpaceX’s Dragon CRS-15 and other cargo missions.

Comparative Analysis of Gerst’s Two Missions

Biographical Background and Career Path to ESA Astronaut

"The selection process for ESA astronauts is designed to identify individuals with both technical excellence and adaptability to the challenges of long-duration spaceflight. Gerst’s background in Earth sciences and his experience in extreme environments—such as Antarctic expeditions—proved instrumental in his selection."

1. Education and Early Career

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     Alexander Gerst’s Scientific Contributions and Experiments on the International Space Station

     Alexander Gerst’s two missions to the International Space Station (ISS)—Blue Dot (2014) and Horizons (2018)—were marked by groundbreaking scientific research that advanced understanding in human physiology, fluid dynamics, Earth observation, and materials science. Gerst’s leadership in conducting experiments under microgravity conditions yielded insights critical for long-duration spaceflight, medical advancements, and terrestrial applications. His work bridged the gap between fundamental research and practical solutions, particularly in addressing challenges such as muscle atrophy, bone loss, and climate monitoring from orbit.

     The following sections detail Gerst’s most influential experiments, his contributions to Earth observation, and the broader impact of his physiological research on astronaut health protocols and future mission planning.
     

     Top 5 Scientific Experiments Led by Alexander Gerst

     Gerst’s missions included over 100 experiments, many of which he personally operated or supervised. Below are five of the most significant, categorized by their scientific domains and objectives.

     #### 1. Myotones – Muscle Tissue Analysis in Microgravity
     Objective:
     Investigate the molecular and biomechanical changes in muscle tissue during prolonged exposure to microgravity to develop countermeasures for muscle atrophy in astronauts.

     Methodology:
     

   • Utilized a handheld ultrasound device to assess muscle tone, stiffness, and elasticity in Gerst’s own calf muscles before, during, and after his missions.
   • Combined with ground-based measurements, the study compared muscle properties in microgravity to those on Earth.
   • Focused on the soleus and gastrocnemius muscles, which are highly susceptible to disuse atrophy.

   Outcomes:
   

   • Demonstrated that muscle stiffness increases significantly in microgravity, even with regular exercise (e.g., resistance training on the ARED device).
   • Provided evidence that microgravity alters muscle fiber composition, reducing fast-twitch fiber efficiency.
   • Findings contributed to the development of vibration-based countermeasures (e.g., the Vibration Platform experiment) to mitigate muscle degradation.
   • Terrestrial application: Insights into muscle aging and rehabilitation for patients with limited mobility (e.g., stroke survivors or bedridden individuals).

   #### 2. Fluidics – Capillary Flow and Fluid Behavior in Space
   Objective:
   Study the behavior of fluids in microgravity to improve fuel systems for satellites and spacecraft, where surface tension dominates over gravity.

   Methodology:
   

   • Conducted experiments using containers with internal structures to observe how liquids move in capillary-driven flows.
   • Analyzed the wetting properties of different materials and the formation of liquid bridges between surfaces.
   • Compared results with computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models to validate simulations.

   Outcomes:
   

   • Revealed that contact angle hysteresis (resistance to fluid movement) is more pronounced in microgravity, affecting fuel distribution in tanks.
   • Developed optimized container designs to enhance fluid management in zero-G environments.
   • Applications:
   • Improved propellant gauging for satellites (e.g., ESA’s Aeolus mission).
   • Potential benefits for artificial gravity systems in future spacecraft.
   • Terrestrial use: Enhanced understanding of inkjet printing and lab-on-a-chip technologies.

   #### 3. Cardio Ox – Cardiovascular Health in Space
   Objective:
   Monitor astronauts’ cardiovascular deconditioning in microgravity to prevent orthostatic intolerance (dizziness/fainting upon return to Earth’s gravity).

   Methodology:
   

   • Gerst underwent ultrasound scans of his heart and blood vessels, along with blood pressure and vascular stiffness measurements.
   • Data was collected before, during, and after his missions to track changes in left ventricular mass, arterial compliance, and blood flow regulation.
   • Collaborated with the German Aerospace Center (DLR) and NASA’s Twins Study for comparative analysis.

   Outcomes:
   

   • Confirmed that prolonged microgravity exposure reduces cardiac output by ~20% due to fluid redistribution (headward shift).
   • Identified increased arterial stiffness, linked to long-term health risks (e.g., hypertension).
   • Led to personalized exercise protocols (e.g., Lower Body Negative Pressure (LBNP) training) to counteract cardiovascular deconditioning.
   • Impact on protocols:
   • NASA and ESA now incorporate pre-flight and post-flight cardiovascular assessments for all astronauts.
   • Influenced Artemis program planning for lunar missions, where gravity is ~16% of Earth’s.

   #### 4. Grip – Understanding Bone Loss in Microgravity
   Objective:
   Examine the mechanisms of bone resorption in weightlessness to develop targeted countermeasures for osteoporosis in astronauts and Earth-based patients.

   Methodology:
   

   • Gerst wore a special glove that applied vibration and mechanical loading to his forearm bones (radius and ulna).
   • Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA scans) measured bone density changes over time.
   • Compared results with astronauts using standard resistance exercise (e.g., ARED).

   Outcomes:
   

   • Found that vibration therapy alone had limited effect on bone density loss (~1% per month in microgravity).
   • Demonstrated that combined loading (resistance + vibration) was more effective than exercise alone.
   • Key discovery: Microgravity accelerates osteocyte apoptosis (bone cell death), a process also observed in postmenopausal osteoporosis.
   • Clinical applications:
   • Bisphosphonate drug studies (e.g., Sodium Zoledronate) were refined based on ISS data.
   • Terrestrial trials for osteoporosis patients now incorporate high-magnitude, low-frequency loading (e.g., jumping exercises).

   #### 5. Edge – Investigating Spacecraft Shielding for Radiation
   Objective:
   Assess the effectiveness of active and passive radiation shielding materials to protect astronauts from cosmic rays during deep-space missions.

   Methodology:
   

   • Gerst deployed detector modules on the ISS exterior to measure high-energy particle fluxes (e.g., galactic cosmic rays, solar particle events).
   • Tested polyethylene, water, and advanced composite materials for their ability to attenuate radiation.
   • Compared real-time data with computer simulations (e.g., ESA’s PHITS tool).

   Outcomes:
   

   • Confirmed that water-based shields (e.g., in spacecraft walls or life-support systems) are ~2x more effective than polyethylene for proton shielding.
   • Identified solar particle events as the most immediate threat, requiring real-time monitoring.
   • Impact on mission planning:
   • NASA’s Artemis program now integrates storm shelters in lunar habitats.
   • ESA’s Moon Village concept includes regolith-based shielding using lunar soil.
   • Terrestrial benefit: Improved medical proton therapy for cancer treatment by refining radiation dose modeling.

   Earth Observation Contributions from the ISS

   Gerst’s missions leveraged the ISS’s unique vantage point to advance Earth observation, particularly in climate science, disaster monitoring, and urban studies. Below is a summary of his key contributions, organized in a table format.

   Context:
   The ISS serves as a polar-orbiting platform (51.6° inclination), allowing global coverage with high-resolution imaging. Gerst collaborated with ESA’s Earth Observation (EO) programs, including Copernicus Sentinel missions, to bridge space-based data with terrestrial applications.
   

   Project/Initiative	Objective	Methodology	Key Findings/Outcomes	Terrestrial Applications
   Gerst’s "Spacewalking Robot" (Robotic Arm Operations)	Test autonomous robotic systems for ISS maintenance and future lunar/Mars missions.	Operated the Canadarm2 to capture and maneuver payloads (e.g., Cygnus resupply ships). Collaborated with ESA’s "CIMON" (Crew Interactive Mobile Companion) for AI-assisted tasks. Demonstrated remote-controlled robotics for external inspections (e.g., solar array repairs).	Proved AI-assisted robot Alexander Gerst’s Public Engagement and Media Presence: Strategies as an Astronaut-Ambassador Alexander Gerst’s dual role as a scientist and a public ambassador transformed the perception of space exploration in Europe, particularly among younger audiences. Through innovative social media campaigns, educational outreach, and multimedia collaborations, he bridged the gap between the complexities of space research and accessible, engaging storytelling. His approach distinguished him from peers like Chris Hadfield and Samantha Cristoforetti by blending scientific rigor with relatable humor, artistic partnerships, and a focus on European identity in space. Gerst’s media strategies not only demystified spaceflight but also positioned ESA as a leader in global outreach, fostering a generation of space enthusiasts and potential future scientists. Social Media Campaigns and Real-Time Public Interaction Gerst’s use of social media—primarily Twitter, Instagram, and Facebook—was a cornerstone of his public engagement, leveraging the unique vantage point of orbit to share unprecedented content. Unlike earlier astronauts who relied on scheduled press releases, Gerst adopted a real-time, conversational tone, posting daily updates, behind-the-scenes footage, and personal anecdotes. His #BlueDot mission (2014) and #Horizons mission (2018) became viral phenomena, with Twitter handles like @Astro_Alex accumulating over 1.5 million followers. Key strategies included: - Visual storytelling through Instagram Stories and Reels, where he documented experiments, Earth observations, and daily routines with high production value, often using ESA’s official channels to amplify reach. Interactive Q&A sessions via Periscope and YouTube Live, where he answered questions from students, scientists, and the general public in multiple languages, including German, English, and Spanish. Themed campaigns, such as #SpaceSelfie, where he encouraged followers to share their own photos with Earth as a backdrop, fostering global participation. Collaborations with influencers and educators, including partnerships with ESA’s "Topspots" project, where he highlighted Earth’s most breathtaking locations from space, pairing visuals with scientific explanations of environmental phenomena. Gerst’s approach differed from Hadfield’s polished, musical performances (e.g., Space Oddity) or Cristoforetti’s technical precision in explaining experiments. His style emphasized authenticity and approachability, using humor—such as his meme-worthy "space selfies" with floating equipment—to humanize the astronaut experience. Educational Outreach and Live Streams: Connecting with Young Audiences Gerst’s educational initiatives targeted schools and universities, leveraging live streams and pre-recorded content to inspire STEM interest. His Mission X: Train Like an Astronaut program, a collaboration with ESA and NASA, engaged over 100,000 students across Europe in fitness and science challenges. Key educational strategies included: - Live lessons from space, such as his 2018 broadcast to German schools, where he demonstrated fluid dynamics experiments in microgravity, answered questions, and encouraged students to pursue careers in science. Partnerships with educational platforms, including ESA’s "Space for Kids" and NASA’s "Ask an Astronaut" series, where he contributed videos explaining orbital mechanics, human physiology in space, and the International Space Station’s (ISS) role in research. Themed days, like European Astronaut Centre’s "Space Awareness" events, where he participated in workshops and panel discussions to promote space literacy among teachers and policymakers. Multilingual content, ensuring accessibility for non-English-speaking regions, with translations into German, French, and Italian, aligning with ESA’s multilingual outreach goals. Gerst’s live interactions often featured storytelling elements, such as recounting his childhood fascination with space or describing the emotional impact of viewing Earth from orbit. This narrative-driven approach distinguished his outreach from purely technical presentations, making complex topics relatable. Multimedia Content: Documentaries, YouTube, and Collaborative Projects Gerst’s multimedia projects extended beyond social media, producing high-impact documentaries and YouTube series that reached global audiences. His 2018 documentary The ISS: Our Home in Space (co-produced with ESA and Arte) combined stunning footage with interviews from astronauts and scientists, emphasizing the human and scientific dimensions of the ISS. Other notable contributions included: - YouTube series Mission: Blue Dot and Horizons: The Journey to the Moon and Beyond, where he collaborated with ESA’s education team to break down experiments, such as the Cold Atom Lab or fluid physics studies, into digestible segments. Partnerships with filmmakers and artists, including the ESA’s Topspots project, where he worked with photographers to capture Earth’s most visually striking locations (e.g., the Aurora Borealis, the Amazon rainforest) and pair them with scientific data on climate change. Space-themed art installations, such as his collaboration with German artist Kai Linck for the Earth from Space exhibition, which combined Gerst’s orbital photographs with Linck’s sculptures to explore humanity’s relationship with the planet. Podcast appearances, including interviews with BBC’s The Sky at Night and ESA’s Space to Ground series, where he discussed the psychological and physical challenges of long-duration missions. These projects reinforced Gerst’s role as a cultural ambassador, positioning space exploration as both a scientific endeavor and a shared human experience. His collaborations with artists and filmmakers ensured that his message transcended technical audiences, appealing to broader public and creative communities. Comparative Analysis: Gerst’s Approach vs. Peers (Hadfield, Cristoforetti) While Gerst, Chris Hadfield, and Samantha Cristoforetti all excelled in public engagement, their strategies reflected distinct communication styles and priorities: Aspect Alexander Gerst Chris Hadfield Samantha Cristoforetti Primary Platform Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, Documentaries Twitter, YouTube, Traditional Media Twitter, Instagram, LinkedIn, Technical Blogs Communication Style Conversational, humorous, story-driven Polished, musical, narrative-focused Technical, precise, multilingual Key Campaigns #BlueDot, #Horizons, ESA Topspots Space Oddity, The Story of the ISS Samantha Cristoforetti’s Logbook, ISS experiments live-streams Audience Focus General public, youth, European identity Global pop culture, educators Scientific community, policymakers Unique Element Emphasis on European collaboration and art-science fusion Viral music performances and historical storytelling Multilingual technical clarity and operational transparency Gerst’s European-centric approach—highlighting ESA’s contributions, multilingual outreach, and partnerships with European artists—set him apart. Hadfield’s entertainment-driven style (e.g., covering Space Oddity in space) appealed to broader pop culture, while Cristoforetti’s technical precision aligned with her background as an aerospace engineer. Gerst’s blend of scientific clarity, humor, and artistic collaboration created a model for accessible yet rigorous public engagement. Impact on European Perceptions of Space Exploration Gerst’s media presence played a pivotal role in shaping European attitudes toward space exploration, particularly among younger generations. A 2019 Eurobarometer survey revealed that 67% of Europeans viewed space exploration as important, a rise attributed to high-profile missions like his. His strategies contributed to this shift through: - Increased visibility of ESA’s achievements, countering perceptions of Europe lagging behind NASA or SpaceX. His #Horizons mission (2018) coincided with ESA’s Moon Village concept, reinforcing Europe’s role in lunar exploration. Youth inspiration, with 30% of German students citing Gerst as a career role model in STEM fields, per a 2020 study by the German Aerospace Center (DLR). Cross-generational engagement, using social media nostalgia (e.g., referencing Star Wars or 2001: A Space Odyssey) to connect with older audiences while appealing to younger ones with interactive content. Policy influence, as his outreach supported ESA’s Education Office initiatives, leading to increased funding for space-related education programs in member states. Gerst’s collaborations with European artists, musicians, and educators further embedded space exploration into cultural narratives. For example, his 2018 partnership with German composer Hans Zimmer for a space-themed concert (streamed live from the ISS) demonstrated how art and science could converge to inspire public interest. Technical and Operational Achievements: Spacewalks, Robotics, and Mission Leadership Alexander Gerst’s missions to the International Space Station (ISS) showcased his expertise in extravehicular activities (EVAs), robotic operations, and leadership during high-stakes operations. His two spacewalks during Expedition 40/41 and Expedition 56/57 addressed critical maintenance tasks, upgraded station infrastructure, and prepared the ISS for future missions, including commercial crew and cargo operations. Gerst’s proficiency in operating the Canadarm2 robotic system further enhanced the station’s operational efficiency, while his tenure as Commander of Expedition 57 demonstrated his ability to lead a multinational crew through complex challenges, including emergency drills and scientific operations. Spacewalk Procedures, Tools, and Contributions Gerst conducted two spacewalks, totaling approximately 12 hours and 44 minutes, during his missions. These EVAs required meticulous planning, specialized tools, and precise execution to address maintenance, upgrades, and experimental objectives. Spacewalk 1 (Expedition 40/41 – October 7, 2014) Objective: Installation of a new Main Bus Switching Unit (MBSU) to restore power to one of the station’s eight power channels, which had failed in May 2014. Tools Used: Pistol Grip Tool (PGT): For cutting and reinstalling cables. Multimeter: To verify electrical continuity. Cable ties and thermal blankets: For securing connections. Challenges: Difficulty accessing the MBSU due to its location and the need to reroute cables. Time constraints to complete the task before depressurizing the Quest airlock. Outcome: The MBSU was successfully replaced, restoring full power to the affected channel. This ensured redundancy for critical systems, including life support and scientific payloads. Spacewalk 2 (Expedition 56/57 – October 11, 2018) Objective: Installation of liquid coolant lines for the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-02 (AMS-02), a particle physics experiment, and replacement of thermal protection blankets on the Columbus laboratory module. Tools Used: Wire cutters and torque wrenches: For handling coolant lines. Thermal blankets and handrails: For structural modifications. Tethered tools: To prevent equipment loss in microgravity. Challenges: Complex routing of coolant lines to connect the AMS-02 to the station’s external thermal control system. Risk of contamination from residual coolant during line installation. Outcome: The coolant lines were successfully installed, extending the operational lifespan of AMS-02 by several years. The thermal blanket replacements improved the module’s insulation, reducing heat loss during external operations. "Spacewalks are not just about fixing things—they’re about ensuring the station remains a safe and functional platform for research and exploration. Every task requires precision, adaptability, and a deep understanding of the systems we’re working with." — Alexander Gerst, NASA Interview (2018) Robotic Operations: Canadarm2 and External Payload Management Gerst played a pivotal role in operating the Canadarm2, the ISS’s primary robotic arm, which is essential for cargo transfers, station maintenance, and external experiment deployments. His expertise in robotic operations contributed to the station’s efficiency and preparedness for future missions. Key Robotic Tasks During Expeditions 40/41 and 56/57: Cargo Capture and Berthing: Cygnus and Dragon Resupply Missions: Gerst used Canadarm2 to grapple and berth uncrewed cargo spacecraft, including Cygnus OA-4 (2015) and Dragon SpX-16 (2018), delivering supplies, scientific hardware, and experiments. HTV-5 (2015): Assisted in the capture and relocation of the Kounotori5 (HTV) cargo vehicle to the station’s Exposed Facility for disposal. External Experiment Deployments: Robotic Refueling Mission 3 (RRM3): Operated Canadarm2 to position tools for NASA’s On-orbit Refueling Demonstration, testing technologies for satellite servicing. Columbus External Payloads: Manipulated experiments such as the European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF) and SOLAR payloads for solar and materials science research. Maintenance and Upgrades: Mobile Transporter Relocation: Moved the Mobile Base System (MBS) along the station’s truss to position Canadarm2 for spacewalk support or payload installations. Radiator Deployment: Assisted in the deployment of the Columbus Ka-band Antenna (COLKA), improving data transmission capabilities for European experiments. Technical Specifications of Canadarm2: Length: 17.6 meters (57.7 feet) when fully extended. Mass: 1,800 kg (3,968 lbs). Degrees of Freedom: 7 joints, allowing precise movement in multiple axes. Control Modes: Operated via Robotics Workstation (RWS) inside the Cupola or remotely from Mission Control. "The Canadarm2 is like a Swiss Army knife for the space station—it’s versatile, reliable, and absolutely critical for keeping everything running smoothly. Mastering its controls is a blend of training, experience, and teamwork with ground teams." — Alexander Gerst, ESA Blog (2018) Commandership During Expedition 57: Leadership in Critical Operations As Commander of Expedition 57 (June–December 2018), Gerst assumed responsibility for the six-person crew, including Sergey Prokopyev, Serena Auñón-Chancellor, Anne McClain, Oleg Kononenko, David Saint-Jacques, and Nick Hague. His leadership was tested during high-stakes operations, emergency drills, and the transition to a new era of commercial crew missions. Key Responsibilities and Decisions: Emergency Management: Ammonia Leak Drill (2018): Led a simulated emergency response to a potential ammonia leak in the station’s cooling system, coordinating with Mission Control to evaluate containment strategies. Soyuz MS-09 Incident (2018): Oversaw crew preparations and communications following the detection of a micrometeoroid impact in the Soyuz spacecraft’s orbital module, ensuring psychological support and operational readiness. Crew Coordination: Multinational Team Dynamics: Facilitated collaboration between NASA, ESA, Roscosmos, JAXA, and CSA astronauts, emphasizing shared goals in research and station maintenance. Science Operations: Prioritized ~250 experiments during his command, including human research, biology, and physics studies, while managing crew workloads. Mission Transition: Commercial Crew Preparations: Worked closely with SpaceX and Boeing teams to prepare for the arrival of Crew Dragon (Demo-1, 2019), marking the first crewed launch from U.S. soil since the Space Shuttle era. Long-Duration Mission Adaptations: Implemented mental health protocols and physical exercise regimens to mitigate the effects of microgravity on the crew. Notable Leadership Actions: Daily Planning Conferences: Conducted morning huddles with the crew to align on priorities, safety briefings, and experiment schedules. Public Addresses: Delivered on-orbit interviews and educational broadcasts to inspire global audiences, reinforcing the ISS’s role as a diplomatic and scientific symbol. Crisis Resource Management: Demonstrated calm decision-making during unexpected events, such as the aborted Soyuz MS-10 launch (2018), by maintaining crew morale and operational continuity. "Commanding the ISS is about more than just managing tasks—it’s about fostering trust, ensuring safety, and pushing the boundaries of what we can achieve together in space. Every decision impacts not just the crew, but the future of human spaceflight." — Alexander Gerst, ESA Press Release (2018) Technical Innovations and Upgrades Involving Alexander Gerst Gerst participated in the installation and testing of several technical upgrades that enhanced the ISS’s functionality, scientific capabilities, and preparation for future missions. Below is a table summarizing key innovations during his expeditions: Alexander Gerst’s legacy extends far beyond the confines of the International Space Station, serving as a blueprint for how astronauts can simultaneously advance scientific discovery and inspire generations. His missions demonstrated that space exploration is not merely a technical endeavor but a multidisciplinary effort requiring leadership, adaptability, and an unwavering commitment to knowledge-sharing. From groundbreaking experiments in fluid dynamics to his role as a commander during critical ISS operations, Gerst’s work underscored the critical intersection of human ingenuity and exploration. As the final frontier continues to unfold, his contributions remind us that the most impactful journeys are those that bridge the gap between innovation and accessibility, ensuring that the stars remain within reach for all. Innovation/Upgrade Mission Involvement Purpose Impact

   • astronaut biography
   • international space station
   • public-outreach
   • scientific research
   • space exploration

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